Commedia Dell'Arte
Commedia Dell'Arte can be directly translated from Italian as: 'Comedy of the Arts'. It is an early form of theatre characterised by its archetypical characters being the foundations of the style. These characters have been the foundation on which many modern-day productions and plays have built their stories on.
What is Commedia?
With origins in 16th century Italy, Commedia's characteristic stock characters and plots later moved over to France, referred to as Comedie Italienne. As it stretched all throughout Europe, it took the form of pantomime in England, which is one of the nearest modern day depictions to Commedia that can be seen to this day. All of the distinctive styles and forms that Commedia has taken globally, all share common forms, motifs and characteristics. These include recurring plots and sub-plots, humorous jokes and interludes (such as the characteristic Lazzi, which we will discuss later), such as harlequinades and the traditional prologues and epilogues that are shared as a characteristic, not just with Commedia-based productions, but universally, with their origins in Commedia.
Although the exact origins of Commedia are ambiguous, we know that the performances began with local amateurs in villages and towns in rural Italy, which then leaked into the knowledge of more notorious, professional performers and companies. This launched this form of theatre into the public domain. The seemingly unchanged characters and farces, seemingly of professional intent, are assumed to have deep-rooted origins in the Italian Middle Ages.
Lazzi were (are) comic breaks and moments that are intended to interrupt a scene. Before a performance, actors would be aware of what scenes should entail and result with, these scene would not be entirely (or at all) rehearsed. Some of the only rehearsed aspects of a conventional Commedia play, were the Lazzi. The actor performing the Lazzi (typically a character lower down in the hierarchy of characters, such as Zanni or Arlecchino), would enter a scene, often interrupting Flavio and Isabella in an intimate moment, or Pantalone conversing with El Doctore, and the audience response would often include outrage and great comic relief.
Meet the Characters
The characters in Commedia all have distinct characteristics and serve the purpose of reflecting society's hierarchal characteristics.
Vecchi
From the Italian singular 'Vecchio', meaning 'old one' often connoting power and authority. The 'Vecchi' in Commedia are distinguished primarily by: Pantalone, il Dottore and il Capitano.
Pantalone
Pantalone is the master of the household and the employer of many of the servants. Despite his authority, he is typically portrayed as an elderly, miserly, and lecherous man who is extremely protective of his money—and, as reflected in his physicality, his masculinity as well. He often persuades others to work for him by promising rewards such as food or payment, yet he is frequently tricked or taken advantage of, becoming the subject of ridicule. In this way, Pantalone represents wealth, commerce, and business within society, while also being a figure of satire. He is known to treat his servants harshly, particularly the second Zanni, and the master–servant dynamic is central to his character.
His costume usually consists of a long robe paired with red leggings and livery. The red colouring symbolises both his social status and his strong desires and appetites. Pantalone's mask is distinguished by a long, beak-like nose, which emphasises his greed and foolishness. It also features a wrinkled brow, bushy eyebrows, and drooping eyes that reflect his age and perpetually irritable temperament. The character has often been compared to Shylock from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, who similarly represents an older, miserly moneylender.
Pantalone is almost always irritated or angry with someone, yet many of his comic routines, or lazzi, highlight his constant misfortune. In one example, he boasts about famous people he claims to have met. In another, he attempts to confront a Captain with the help of his Zanni, but both forget how to properly use their swords and end up pushing each other toward the opponent instead. Pantalone is also famously lustful, often showing inappropriate interest in younger women such as his servant Columbina. One common lazzo involves his dagger rising between his legs when someone mentions an attractive woman. He is also frequently portrayed as the father of Isabella, one of the Lovers. Above all, he values wealth and possessions, remaining constantly suspicious that someone might try to take them from him.
Physically, Pantalone is portrayed as frail and aged. His back is hunched, his shoulders pulled forward, and he leads his movement with bent knees and his chin jutting outward. His hands often hover protectively around his crotch area, where he typically keeps a pouch of coins along with other treasured possessions. His posture and movement are sometimes compared to that of a vulture or turkey. When angered, he may suddenly move with surprising bursts of energy, jumping up and down in a childish outburst, though he quickly becomes exhausted and out of breath. His voice is high-pitched and squawking rather than commanding, often sounding shrill and unpleasant.
il Dottore
Moving on to the "master" characters, the first is Il Dottore, meaning "the Doctor." Although he is highly educated, he is not necessarily intelligent. He is also extremely wealthy, which contributes to his pompous and self-important personality. Il Dottore often acts as a comic counterpart to Pantalone, appearing as his advisor, friend, or rival. In this pairing, Pantalone represents the decadent wealthy merchant, while Il Dottore represents the equally decadent academic.
Il Dottore is usually portrayed as an older and supposedly "wise" man. The term "wise," however, is somewhat ironic. While he has attended university, he often pretends to be an expert in many different subjects, speaking at great length without actually saying anything meaningful. His speeches are typically filled with nonsense, as he rarely understands the topics he discusses. He is commonly the father of Columbina or Isabella and often acts as an obstacle preventing the Lovers from being together. Physically, Il Dottore is typically portrayed as quite large and is known for his love of food, drink, and women. Despite this interest in romance, he is often dishonest and frequently caught being unfaithful, earning him a reputation as something of a "love rat."
The character of Il Dottore serves as a parody of intellectuals and the educated elite. Most of his speech is meaningless rambling, occasionally interrupted by sophisticated vocabulary or references to Latin or Greek. To those without access to higher education, this mixture of impressive-sounding language and confusion would appear both intimidating and absurd.
In terms of physicality, Il Dottore moves with a slow, bouncing walk that reflects his size, often stomping with flat feet. His chest is held high, his knees slightly bent, and he tends to lead with his forehead while looking down his nose at others in an arrogant manner. When speaking, he often plants himself firmly in one spot and gestures constantly to emphasise his arguments.
Il Dottore's mask is distinctive among Commedia dell'arte characters. Unlike the typical half-mask, it covers only about a third of the face, emphasising the character's large forehead and nose. The actor's cheeks may sometimes be painted red to suggest his fondness for drink. His costume usually consists of long, flowing black robes, and the actor is often padded or styled to appear older and heavier, reinforcing the satirical portrayal of the character.
il Capitano
Il Capitano is another highly recognisable character from Commedia dell'arte. He is famous for his exaggerated bravado and the grand image he tries to project, which contrasts sharply with his true cowardly nature. Typically portrayed as a stranger passing through town, he may in fact be little more than a Zanni from another village who disguises himself behind invented stories of heroic exploits.
The character of Capitano is built around two contrasting sides: the proud "Captain" and the fearful man beneath the façade. As the "Captain," he presents himself as a glorious soldier, constantly boasting about his supposed military achievements. He often claims titles he has never earned and describes heroic victories that never happened. However, these dramatic stories usually impress no one but himself, and he often becomes so caught up in his own exaggerations that he fails to notice others' disbelief. Beneath this persona lies the cowardly reality. In truth, he is likely to flee at the first sign of danger and avoid confrontation whenever possible. He can also be awkward around other men and is driven by opportunism and greed. For example, if hired by Pantalone to guard his daughter from suitors, Capitano might manipulate the situation for his own benefit—encouraging the suitors and Pantalone to compete for his services while also attempting to court the daughter himself.
Through this character, Commedia dell'arte clearly satirises military culture. Capitano represents an exaggerated image of bravery and masculinity, mocking the idea of heroic soldiers by revealing that the man behind the display is incapable of real courage.
Physically, Capitano carries himself with exaggerated pride. He leads with his chest pushed forward, his head tilted upward, and often looks down his nose at others. His movements are grand and theatrical, with long, dramatic strides and high kicks. However, when frightened, his posture collapses—his body becomes tense and closed, revealing his insecurity.
Capitano's mask is typically described as having a very long nose, sometimes interpreted as boldly phallic. This feature is also associated with Zanni masks, reinforcing the idea that Capitano may simply be a servant pretending to be something greater. His costume resembles an elaborate military uniform, often intentionally exaggerated with decorative garters, ruffles, and other flamboyant details to enhance the satire. He also carries an extremely long sword at his side. If he ever gathers the courage to draw it, the weapon usually proves impractical—too long, too heavy, or too awkward to handle effectively. Even if he were to wound someone, he might faint at the mere sight of blood.
Servants
Meet servant characters, whose distinct contrast to the masters and il Capitano help with the comedy:
Zanni
Among the characters of Commedia dell'arte, Zanni occupies the lowest position in the social hierarchy. He is a household servant, most commonly working for Pantalone, and is portrayed as ignorant, crude, and lacking self-awareness. In fact, the word "Zanni" is a general term for a servant and is the origin of the English word "zany."
Zanni is known for his slapstick humour and his constant hunger. He seems willing to eat absolutely anything, driven by an endless appetite. He also views the world in an almost animistic way, believing that everything possesses a spirit—and therefore might be edible. Despite his foolish behaviour, Zanni is deeply loyal and always tries to serve his master as well as he can, even if his abilities are limited. He is often described as a "stupid genius": someone who struggles with the simplest tasks yet somehow manages to achieve the impossible, leading to many comedic misunderstandings.
The character of Zanni is thought to represent the rural peasants and immigrant workers of the time, reflecting how they were often mistreated or misunderstood by the upper classes who gave them orders they could not fully understand.
Physically, Zanni is performed with a low centre of gravity. His stance is wide, with turned-out feet, an arched back, and arms that hang and swing loosely. He moves in an uneven rhythm of three steps followed by a pause before repeating, while constantly looking around with curiosity and fascination. This playful, reactive movement can make him resemble a monkey, which emphasises his perceived lack of intelligence.
Zanni's mask is recognisable by its long nose; traditionally, the longer the nose, the more foolish the character. His costume typically consists of loose white clothing, similar to what peasants and farm labourers would have worn during that period.
Arlecchino
Often considered one of the most famous and recognisable characters in Commedia dell'arte, Arlecchino is also a servant within the household. However, unlike his counterpart Zanni, he is more playful, clever, and agile. Rather than simply following orders, Arlecchino often uses his wit and resourcefulness to undermine his master's plans and pursue his own goals.
A defining feature of Arlecchino's character is his physical agility. He is extremely nimble and rarely performs a straightforward action without adding some form of acrobatic flourish. Despite this skill, he still belongs to the Zanni servant type and therefore shares the same paradoxical qualities of being both foolish and cunning. At times, Arlecchino appears to deliberately pretend to be stupid, almost as a performance in itself, creating confusion and chaos so that he can secretly follow his own interests. One of these interests is often his love for Columbine, though his attraction to her is usually rivalled by his equally strong desire for food or money.
Physically, Arlecchino moves with speed and energy that reflect his lively personality. He is light and quick on his feet, often balancing on his toes with his weight leaning forward. His movement tends to lead with the forehead, and he is constantly active—either engaged in an action or searching for something to do.
Arlecchino's mask is typically recognised by its carbuncles on the forehead, small eyes, a short snub nose, and hollow cheeks. It may also feature bushy eyebrows and facial hair. His costume is famously decorated with irregular patches, symbolising his deceptive and chaotic nature, and he often wears a hat adorned with a fox or rabbit tail.
Brighella
Brighella differs from many of the other servant characters. While he began in poverty, he is often portrayed as having risen into the middle class and commonly appears as a tavern owner or the leader of the servants. In many ways, Brighella can be seen as a more experienced and far more malicious counterpart to Arlecchino—almost like an older, more calculating brother.
Brighella thrives on deception. He is a skilled liar who can invent convincing stories on the spot to suit any situation. Opportunistic by nature, he constantly seeks the outcome that benefits him the most. At times he may appear to serve his master loyally, but he is always ready to manipulate situations for his own advantage. As a result, he acts as a double dealer, willing to betray others if it helps him protect himself or gain something in return. When his schemes fail, it is usually because of chance or unexpected interference from other characters. Brighella is also known for his cruelty and aggression, frequently mistreating the servants beneath him and treating them harshly. Although he has a strong love of money, he tends to spend it quickly, often on drink.
Physically, Brighella carries himself with a relaxed, almost careless confidence. He typically leads his movement with his hips or torso and maintains a wide, open posture. When he walks, his torso sways from side to side while his head remains upright. Overall, his body language appears calm and controlled, reflecting his sense of authority over those around him.
Brighella's mask is recognisable by its hooked nose, thick lips, and a distinctive curled moustache that gives him a somewhat sly and aggressive appearance. His costume usually consists of loose white clothing that reflects his origins as a Zanni servant, but unlike the traditional Zanni outfit, it is decorated with green trim to symbolise his greed and cunning nature. He is also often equipped with a slapstick or wooden sword, which he uses to discipline or threaten servants such as Zanni and Arlecchino.
il Magnifico
Il Magnifico can be seen as a version of Pantalone before the effects of old age have weakened him. Although he wears a similar style of costume, Magnifico is portrayed as far richer, more powerful, and physically capable. He is often depicted as a ruler or leader of a state and stands at the very top of the Commedia dell'arte hierarchy—the "master of the masters." Despite his importance, this character is rarely seen on stage in this form.
His costume is typically dark and elaborate, often featuring long, imposing robes that contribute to his mysterious presence. The mask of Il Magnifico differs from Pantalone's in that it has more sharply furrowed brows, no eyebrows, and a shorter but still hooked nose, giving him a more severe and intimidating appearance.
Magnifico is portrayed as a mysterious and somewhat sinister figure who maintains control over everyone around him. Unlike many other Commedia dell'arte characters, he is not usually the subject of comic lazzi and rarely becomes the target of jokes.
On stage, there is often a noticeable physical distance between Magnifico and the other characters. This proxemic separation reinforces his authority and intimidation. His presence is sometimes compared to that of an eagle—powerful, watchful, and imposing. His voice is deep, booming, and commanding. Physically, he stands with his chest pushed forward and leads with his chin, taking long, deliberate strides that emphasise his dominance and confidence.
Columbina
Columbina, also known as Smeraldina, is another servant within the household, though she is sometimes portrayed as having witch-like qualities. In many ways she resembles Brighella, as she is clever, manipulative, and often tricks others in order to serve her own interests. She is also skilled at singing and storytelling, sometimes using these talents to charm or almost hypnotise those around her. Unlike many of the masked Commedia dell'arte characters, Columbina often performs without a mask, much like the Lovers. She typically serves Isabella and is frequently one of the most intelligent and perceptive characters on stage. In some portrayals, she can be seen as a female counterpart to Arlecchino, though she must also constantly defend herself from the unwanted advances of Pantalone.
Columbina is flirtatious, witty, and sly, often manipulating situations to work in her favour. Her intelligence allows her to outsmart many of the other characters, particularly those who underestimate her because of her position as a servant.
Physically, she moves quickly and lightly, reflecting her sharp and lively personality. Her movements are often energetic and graceful, and she is frequently seen posing with her hands on her hips, projecting confidence and independence.
The character is sometimes loosely connected to the Satiro, a mischievous, satyr-like figure that disrupts the masters within Commedia dell'arte. This creature is portrayed as a chaotic, almost demonic presence that introduces obstacles and confusion for other characters. In this sense, Columbina's cunning and disruptive influence can echo some of these supernatural traits. A comparable figure can be seen in Puck from Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, who similarly creates mischief and complications for those around him.
Inamorati
The Innamorati, or the Lovers, are more separate from the other Commedia dell'arte characters. Unlike most of the cast, they do not wear masks, allowing the audience to clearly see and understand their genuine emotions. They are deeply in love with one another but often struggle to express their feelings openly. Even simple physical contact can feel overwhelming for them, causing their behaviour to swing dramatically between moments of joy and despair.
Their love is frequently forbidden or complicated by external obstacles, such as disapproving parents or misunderstandings. Miscommunication is a common theme in their scenes, often highlighted through comic lazzi in which the Zanni servants deliver letters incorrectly, mix up messages, or misinterpret what has been written, creating confusion between the lovers.
The Innamorati are known for their elaborate and fashionable costumes, which reflect their social status and romantic ideals. They also have a distinctive style of movement. Their physicality is light and expressive, characterised by quick, small steps and a lively, skipping gait. When they pause, they often appear as though they are waiting anxiously for news from their beloved, stretching their hands outward and allowing their gestures to lead their movement. Each lover's performance also emphasises traditional aspects of their gender, highlighting differences in posture, gesture, and expression.
Isabella
The inamorata. She is the daughter of Pantalone, and the lover to Flavio, although her father wishes to marry her off to another respectable master.